Theory Critique Paper - Strain Theory

Why do people commit crimes? This question is one of the main foundations behind criminology. While there are several theories that have attempted to answer this, only a few have been as influential as strain theory. Strain theory offers an explanation for criminal behavior by focusing on societal structure and economic pressure. In short, the theory states that when individuals experience a disjunction between culturally approved goals and the ways to achieve them, they turn to crime and violence. Strain theory is a powerful framework for understanding criminal behavior, particularly those driven by socioeconomic issues. While the theory remains essential in the field of criminology today, it can have limitations that do not explain crimes such as white-collar crimes, sexual crimes, and politically motivated crimes. Despite its weaknesses, strain theory still provides significant sociological insights and can be enhanced with modern social contexts. 

Developed in 1938 by Robert K. Merton strain theory aims to explain why certain cultures and groups were more inclined to illegal behaviors. Strain Theory links crime to the gap between what society expects people to achieve and what they are actually able to achieve. Merton also elaborated on the theory of anomie, or the lack of social or ethical standards in an individual or group. He argued that everyone receives standards of what is considered normal in society, but when these standards are not met, it causes frustration. According to Josephine Campbell, societal pressure and the goal to reach “the American Dream” of being wealthy can lead to wrong conduct from individuals (Campbell, 2024). Due to the difference in their goals and the means to achieve them, individuals start performing behaviors out of the norm and go down the path of delinquency. Merton argued that American society puts immense pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals, particularly material success, but does not provide equal access to the institutional means such as education or employment to achieve these goals.

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This mismatch creates “strain,” leading individuals, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, to turn to crime. 

Additionally, Merton identified five ways people adapt when they experience strain from the gap between society’s goals and the means to reach them. The first is conformity, which is the most common response. Conformists accept the goals set by society, like achieving financial success, and they also follow the accepted paths to get there, such as going to school and working hard. For example, someone who studies, gets a job, and tries to climb the career ladder is conforming. The second type is innovation. Innovators still want the same goals but don’t have access to legal or accepted ways to reach them. So, they come up with their own methods, which are often illegal. Someone who turns to selling drugs or stealing to make money because they don’t see other options is an innovator. Third is ritualism. Ritualists have given up on the big goals like wealth or status, but they still follow the rules and do what is expected, often sticking to low-level jobs with no hope of moving up. This could be a worker who just goes through the motions every day without ambition. Fourth is retreatism. Retreatists reject both the goals and the means. They essentially drop out of society, and this can include people struggling with addiction or homelessness who have stopped trying to fit in or succeed by society’s standards. Lastly, rebellion is when people reject the current goals and means and try to replace them with their own ideas. This can include activists or groups who want to change society completely by creating new rules and goals. 

In an important adaptation of Merton’s original work, Murphy and Robinson (2008) introduced a sixth type of adaptation called the Maximizer. This category describes individuals who fully accept the goals society sets but use a mix of both legitimate and illegitimate methods to reach those goals. Unlike Merton’s innovator, who rejects the accepted rules entirely and turns

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to illegal means alone, the Maximizer combines respectable, lawful behavior with deviant or criminal acts. What sets the Maximizer apart is that they often maintain their social status and avoid the negative judgment that usually comes with criminal behavior. For instance, a business executive who publicly follows legal and ethical standards but secretly engages in insider trading or other forms of financial misconduct fits this category. Murphy and Robinson argue that the Maximizer captures the complexities of modern society, where success and achievement are often valued above the means used to obtain them. This blending of conforming and deviant behavior blurs the traditional lines between following the rules and breaking them, showing that people can operate in both worlds simultaneously. 

Later, Robert Agnew expanded Strain Theory by introducing the General Strain Theory (GST), which goes beyond the original focus on economic failure. Agnew pointed out that strain can come from a wider range of sources, including personal losses such as the death of a loved one, experiences of discrimination, or being a victim of abuse. These types of strain create strong negative emotions, especially anger and frustration, which can push individuals toward criminal or delinquent behavior as a way to cope. By emphasizing the emotional responses to strain, GST broadens the scope of Strain Theory and highlights how personal experiences and feelings are important in understanding why people commit crimes, not just the structural inequalities in society. GST overlooks specific limitations that only apply to socioeconomic status, enhancing Merton’s version of strain theory. 

One major strength of strain theory is its focus on the connection between crime and social structure. Unlike theories that focus mainly on individual psychology or personality traits, Strain Theory looks at how societal systems and inequality shape behavior. In a study about strain and opportunity Iratzoqui writes, “Experiences of child maltreatment are posited to trigger

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feelings of negative emotions more likely managed with forms of coping that can foster opportunities for suffering further victimization” (Iratzoqui, 2023). This helps explain why crime is more common in low-income or disadvantaged communities, where people often do not have the same access to education, employment, or financial resources as others. This lack of opportunity can make people feel frustrated, stuck, or left behind, which can lead them to commit crimes as a way to achieve success or gain some control over their situation. For example, during the crack epidemic in the 1980s and 1990s, many young people in poor urban areas turned to drug dealing because traditional paths like education and stable jobs were largely out of reach. Strain Theory helps make sense of how social conditions, rather than individual weakness, can push people toward crime. 

Another strength is that Strain Theory has been supported by a large body of research. Studies have consistently shown that people who experience high levels of stress, inequality, or blocked opportunity are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST) added to this strength by including a wider range of pressures that people face, such as emotional abuse, bullying, or the death of a loved one. These experiences can create powerful emotions like anger, which may lead to crime if the person feels they have no healthy way to deal with it. For example, research on juvenile delinquency shows that teenagers who feel rejected by their families or schools are more likely to get involved in vandalism, drug use, or theft. By connecting crime to both structural and emotional pressures, Strain Theory offers a flexible and realistic way to understand why people might turn to illegal behavior in response to the challenges they face. 

While Strain Theory explains many types of crime, especially those related to poverty and inequality, it has important limitations. One major weakness is that it does not do a good job

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explaining crimes that are not connected to financial gain or blocked opportunity. For instance, violent crimes such as murder, sexual assault, or domestic abuse are not always motivated by a person trying to achieve success or cope with strain. Some of these crimes are impulsive or driven by factors like power, revenge, or mental illness, which Strain Theory does not fully address. Serial killers or mass shooters, for example, often act out of deep psychological disturbance rather than economic frustration. In these cases, the theory falls short because it focuses mostly on social and economic pressure and does not take into account the complex emotional or mental health issues that can also lead to crime. 

Another criticism of Strain Theory is that it assumes most people share the same goals, such as wanting wealth or status, and that everyone feels strain when they cannot achieve them. In reality, people have different values, goals, and definitions of success. Some individuals may not care about money or status at all, and others might break the law even when they have access to legitimate means. For example, white-collar criminals like corporate executives or politicians often commit fraud, embezzlement, or bribery, even though they are already wealthy and successful by society’s standards. These cases do not fit well within Strain Theory, because the individuals involved are not responding to blocked opportunities. Instead, they may be acting out of greed, arrogance, or a desire for even more power. This shows that crime cannot always be explained by frustration or lack of opportunity alone, and that personal choice, cultural influences, or moral values may also play a big role. 

Overall, strain theory highlights the connection between societal pressure and criminal behavior, showing how individuals may turn to crime when unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means. Merton’s original framework and later additions by Agnew and others expand the theory to include emotional and structural strains, offering a broad explanation

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for property crimes and certain deviant behaviors. Although it does not fully account for crimes like spontaneous violence or white-collar offenses, the theory remains relevant in understanding crime rooted in inequality and frustration. Modern crime prevention can apply Strain Theory by addressing both economic barriers and emotional stressors through community programs, mental 

health services, and educational opportunities, helping reduce the conditions that lead to deviance.

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References 

Antonaccio, O., Smith, W. R., & Gostjev, F. A. (2014, May 12). Anomic Strain and External …..Constraints: A Reassessment of Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory Using Data From Ukraine - …..PubMed. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24825670/. Campbell, J. (2024, November). Strain Theory (sociology) | EBSCO. Retrieved from …..https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/sociology/strain-theory-sociology. Iratzoqui, A. (2023, November). Strain and Opportunity: A Theory of Repeat Victimization - …..PubMed. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26598292/. Murphy, D., & Robinson, M.. (2008). The Maximizer: clarifying Merton's theories of anomie …..and strain. Theoretical Criminology, 12(4), 501. DOI: 10.1177/1362480608097154 …..(ISSN: 1362-4806) [Nov 2008]